Letters and Correspondence in Austens Emma Essay -- Jane Austen

Letters and Correspondence in Austen's Emma Emma as the next step in the epistolary novel Jane Austen’s novel Emma was written at a time when the epistolary novel had just passed its peak (Cousineau, 32). Not only do letters and correspondence feature heavily in the novel, but according to April Alliston, â€Å"elements†¦ characteristic of novels of women’s correspondence recur in Austen† (221). Some examples of these elements that Alliston provides are the existence of young marriageable heroines; deceased mothers, or threatening ones which, in Austen’s novels, have become merely negligent; and substitute mothers who pass advice on to the daughter (221). As epistolary novels were comprised entirely of letters, early novelists could assert the pretended truth of their work rather than label it as fiction (Cousineau, 28). However, one disadvantage to this practice is that artefacts such as letters are â€Å"inscribed in doubleness and contradiction" (Cousineau, 14). Letters serve as a medium between the letter-writers and the reader, a medium which has the potential to warp the truth according to the private and unknown whims of the writers. By adopting an omniscient narration of her characters’ thoughts instead, Austen â€Å"[focussed] the reader’s â€Å"gaze† on the private space from which the heroine gazes out, thus fixing her more squarely in its exemplary frame than letter fiction ever could† (Alliston, 234). Although this method of narration â€Å"sacrifices the â€Å"documentary status†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ that eighteenth century fiction strove to achieve† (Alliston, 236), Austen’s novels al low us to see directly into a character’s thoughts. This both promises a more reliable version of "truth" by enabling the reader to learn a character’s genuine motivation, an... ...aults: Correspondences in Eighteenth-Century British and French Women’s Fiction. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1996. 219-241. Austen, Jane. Emma. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2003. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1997. Cousineau, Diane. â€Å"Letters and the Post Office: Epistolary Exchange in Jane Austen’s Emma.† Letters and Labyrinths. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press, 1997. 13-51. Knoepflmacher, U. C. 2. The Importance of Being Frank: Character and Letter-Writing in Emma. Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, 1967. JSTOR 7 April 2007. Wheeler, David. The British Postal Service, Privacy, and Jane Austen’s â€Å"Emma†. South Atlantic Review, 1998. JSTOR. 7 April 2007.

Alcohol abuse Essay

Alcohol is absorbed from all parts of the gastrointestinal tract largely by simple diffusion into the blood. However the small intestine is by far the most efficient region of the gastrointestinal tract for alcohol absorption because of its very large surface area. In a fasting individual, it is generally agreed that 10% to 20% of a dose of alcohol is absorbed from the stomach (the volume of alcohol affects the absorption) and 75% to 80% is absorbed from the small intestine. Because of this peak blood alcohol concentrations are achieved in fasting people within 0. 5 to 2. 0 hours, (average 0. 75 – 1. 35 hours depending upon dose and time of last meal) while non-fasting people exhibit peak alcohol concentrations within 1. 0, and in extreme cases up to as much as 4. 0 hours (average 1. 06 – 2. 12 hours). Because it is distributed so quickly and thoroughly the alcohol can affect the central nervous system even in small concentrations. In low concentrations, alcohol reduces inhibitions. As blood alcohol concentration increases, a person’s response to stimuli decreases markedly, speech becomes slurred, and he or she becomes unsteady and has trouble walking. With very high concentrations – greater than 0. 35 grams/100 milliliters of blood (equivalent to 0. 35 grams/210 liters of breath ) – a person can become comatose and die. The American Medical Association has defined the blood alcohol concentration level of impairment for all people to be 0. 04 grams/100 milliliters of blood (equivalent to . 04 grams/210 liters of breath). The following is a generally accepted guide to the effects of alcohol. Distribution Alcohol has a high affinity for water and is therefore found in body tissues and fluids inasmuch as they contain water. Absorbed alcohol is rapidly carried throughout the body in the blood and once absorption of alcohol is complete an equilibrium occurs such that blood at all points in the system contains approximately the same concentration of alcohol. Elimination The liver is responsible for the elimination – through metabolism – of 95% of ingested alcohol from the body. The remainder of the alcohol is eliminated through excretion of alcohol in breath, urine, sweat, feces, milk and saliva. The body uses several different metabolic pathways in its oxidation of alcohol to acetaldehyde to acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water. Healthy people metabolize alcohol at a fairly consistent rate. As a rule of thumb, a person will eliminate one average drink or . 5 oz (15 ml) of alcohol per hour. Several factors influence this rate. The rate of elimination tends to be higher when the blood alcohol concentration in the body is very high. Also chronic alcoholics may (depending on liver health) metabolize alcohol at a significantly higher rate than the average. Finally, the body’s ability to metabolize alcohol quickly tend to diminish with age. Body Weight and Body Type In general, the less you weigh the more you will be affected by a given amount of alcohol. As detailed above, alcohol has a high affinity for water. Basically one’s blood alcohol concentration is a function of the total amount of alcohol in one’s system divided by total body water. So for two individuals with similar body compositions and different weights, the larger individual will achieve lower alcohol concentrations than the smaller one if ingesting the same amount of alcohol. However, for people of the same weight, a well muscled individual will be less affected than someone with a higher percentage of fat since fatty tissue does not contain very much water and will not absorb very much alcohol. Rate Of Consumption Blood alcohol concentration depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the rate at which the user’s body metabolizes alcohol. Because the body metabolizes alcohol at a fairly constant rate (somewhat more quickly at higher and lower alcohol concentrations), ingesting alcohol at a rate higher than the rate of elimination results in a cumulative effect and an increasing blood alcohol concentration. Alcohol Content It’s not how many drinks that you have, but how much alcohol that you consume. The concentration of the drinks that one ingest can have a slight effect on the peak alcohol concentration due to the differences in absorption rate of different concentrations of alcohol. Alcohol is most rapidly absorbed when the concentration of the drink is between 10% and 30%. Below 10% the concentration gradient in the gastrointestinal tract is low and slows absorption and the added volumes of liquid involved slow gastric emptying. On the other hand concentrations higher than 30% tend to irritate the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract and the pyloric sphincter, causing increased secretion of mucous and delayed gastric emptying. Food Food taken along with alcohol results in a lower, delayed blood alcohol concentration peak (the point of greatest intoxication). There are two major factors involved in this phenomenon. First, because alcohol is absorbed most efficiently in the small intestine, the ingestion of food can slow down the absorption of alcohol into one’s system. The pyloric valve at the bottom of the stomach will close in order to hold food in the stomach for digestion and thus keep the alcohol from reaching the small intestine. While alcohol will be absorbed from the stomach it is a slower and less efficient transition. Second and equally important is the fact that alcohol elimination rates are inversely proportional to alcohol concentration in the blood. Therefore the suppressed levels of alcohol due to food ingestion cause the body to eliminate the alcohol that is absorbed at a faster rate. The type of food ingested (carbohydrate, fat, protein) has not been shown to have a measurable influence on this affect but the larger the meal and closer in time between eating and drinking, the greater the diminution of peak alcohol concentration. Studies have shown reductions in peak alcohol concentration (as opposed to those of a fasting individual under otherwise similar circumstances) of 9% to 23%. Medication If you are taking any medication, it could increase the effects of alcohol. You should always consult your physician or the medical information that accompanies the medication when drinking alcohol in conjunction with any medication. Fatigue Fatigue causes many of the same symptoms that are caused by alcohol intoxication. These and other symptoms will be amplified if alcohol intoxication is concurrent with fatigue. Tolerance Tolerance is the diminution of the effectiveness of a drug after a period of prolonged or heavy use of that drug or a related drug (cross-tolerance). There are at least two types of tolerance at work with alcohol. The first is metabolic tolerance in which the alcohol is metabolized at a higher rate (up to two times as quickly) in chronic users. Because of the higher metabolic rate for alcohol lower peak blood alcohol concentrations are achieved by chronic alcohol users than the average drinker when the same amount of alcohol is ingested. The second is functional tolerance in which there is an actual change in the organ or system’s sensitivity to the drug. Studies have shown that chronic alcohol users can have twice the tolerance for alcohol as an average person. It is important to note however that even in light of these tolerance factors, it has been shown conclusively that even in heavy alcohol users functional impairment is clearly measurable at the blood alcohol concentration levels that are currently used for traffic law enforcement and safety sensitive job performance. Gender Differences As outlined above in the section on Body Weight and Body Type different body types coincide with different body water percentages. In general, but by no means in all cases, women tend to have a higher percentage of body fat and thus a lower percentage of body water. Therefore, in general, if a man and a woman of the same weight ingest the same amount of alcohol the woman will tend to achieve a higher alcohol concentration. This, of course, would not be true if the woman was very fit and the man was somewhat obese, but on average, this is the case. Furthermore, total body water tends to decrease with age, so an older person will also be more affected by the same amount of alcohol. According to the table below the differences in alcohol concentration due to average body composition differences based on gender would be between 16% and 10% depending on age. ________________________________________ Average Total Body Water as a function of Sex and Age AgeMaleFemale 18 to 4061%52% over 6051%46% ________________________________________ Another gender based difference is in the elimination of alcohol. Although not explained, studies appear to show that women eliminate alcohol from their bodies at a rate 10% greater than that of men. Alcoholism and alcohol abuse Alcoholism (alcohol dependence) and alcohol abuse are two different forms of problem drinking. †¢Alcoholism is when you have signs of physical addiction to alcohol and continues to drink, despite problems with physical health, mental health, and social, family, or job responsibilities. Alcohol may control your life and relationships. †¢Alcohol abuse is when your drinking leads to problems, but not physical addiction. Causes, incidence, and risk factors There is no known cause of alcohol abuse or alcoholism. Research suggests that certain genes may increase the risk of alcoholism, but which genes and how they work are not known. How much you drink can influence your chances of becoming dependent. Those at risk for developing alcoholism include: †¢Men who have 15 or more drinks a week †¢Women who have 12 or more drinks a week †¢Anyone who has five or more drinks per occasion at least once a week One drink is defined as a 12-ounce bottle of beer, a 5-ounce glass of wine, or a 1 1/2-ounce shot of liquor. You have an increased risk for alcohol abuse and dependence if you have a parent with alcoholism. You may also be more likely to abuse alcohol or become dependent if you: †¢Are a young adult under peer pressure †¢Have depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, or schizophrenia †¢Have easy access to alcohol †¢Have low self-esteem †¢Have problems with relationships †¢Live a stressful lifestyle †¢Live in a culture alcohol use is more common and accepted Alcohol abuse is rising. Around 1 out of 6 people in the world have a drinking problem. Symptoms People who have alcoholism or alcohol abuse often: †¢Continue to drink, even when health, work, or family are being harmed †¢Drink alone. †¢Become violent when drinking †¢Become hostile when asked about drinking †¢Are not able to control drinking — being unable to stop or reduce alcohol intake †¢Make excuses to drink †¢Miss work or school, or have a decrease in performance because of drinking †¢Stop taking part in activities because of alcohol †¢Need to use alcohol on most days to get through the day †¢Neglect to eat or eat poorly †¢Do not care about or ignore how they dress or whether they are clean †¢Try to hide alcohol use †¢Shake in the morning or after periods when they have not a drink Symptoms of alcohol dependence include: †¢Memory lapses after heavy drinking †¢Needing more and more alcohol to feel â€Å"drunk† †¢Alcohol withdrawal symptoms when you haven’t had a drink for a while †¢Alcohol-related illnesses such as alcoholic liver disease Signs and tests The health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your medical and family history, including use of alcohol. The following questions are used by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to screen for alcohol abuse or dependence: †¢Do you ever drive when you have been drinking? †¢Do you have to drink more than before to get drunk or feel the desired effect? †¢Have you felt that you should cut down on your drinking? †¢Have you ever had any blackouts after drinking? †¢Have you ever missed work or lost a job because of drinking? †¢Is someone in your family worried about your drinking? Tests that may be done include: †¢Blood alcohol level (this can tell whether someone has recently been drinking alcohol, but it does not necessarily confirm alcoholism) †¢Complete blood count (CBC) †¢Liver function tests. †¢Magnesium blood test Medical Illness Associated With Chronic Alcohol Abuse DisorderIllness MetabolicAlcoholic ketoacidosis, alcoholic hypoglycemia, water and salt disorders NeurologicChronic problems with thinking such as Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoff’s psychosis, alcoholic cerebellar degeneration, and central pontine myelinolysis leading to problems walking and other motor activities, acute and chronic dementia, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy MuscularAcute and chronic alcoholic muscle weakness. GastrointestinalFatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, alcoholic cirrhosis, alcoholic pancreatitis, poor pancreatic function, gastroesophageal reflux, esophageal carcinoma, erosive gastritis, chronic diarrhea, malabsorption, esophageal varices leading to bleeding into the GI tract Metabolic-endocrineHigh cholesterol, high levels of uric acid, low testosterone levels, impotence, testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, irregular menstrual periods, reversible Cushing’s syndrome BloodAnemia due to poor production of blood cells or slow intestinal bleeding, poor white cell production, destruction of platelets, blood too thin to clot properly. CardiacDecreased cardiac function, arrhythmias, dilated cardiomyopathy, high blood pressure PulmonaryIncreased incidence of pneumonia, increased incidence of tuberculosis OtherIncreased incidence of severe intestinal infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, vitamin deficiency syndromes, trauma, sexual dysfunction, insomnia Social Problems Associated With Alcohol Abuse Accidental death and injury50% of fatal car crashes 25-fold increased risk of falls or drowning 50% of fire-related burns or deaths 20% to 30% of trauma seen in emergency rooms. CrimeFrequently involved in violent crime SuicideInvolved in up to 35% of suicides Economic cost$148 billion annually (estimated); 15% for health care and treatment OtherAssociated with increased rates of spouse or child abuse and increased spread of sexually transmitted diseases Treatment Completely stopping the use of alcohol is the ideal goal of treatment. This is called abstinence. A strong social network and family support are important in achieving this. Completely stopping and avoiding alcohol is difficult for many people with alcoholism. There will be times when it is difficult. You should aim to avoid drinking for as long as possible. Some people who abuse alcohol may be able to simply reduce the amount they drink. This is called drinking in moderation. If this method does not work, you should try to quit drinking completely. DECIDING TO QUIT Many people with alcohol problems do not recognize when their drinking gets out of hand. The ideal approach to treatment is to help the person realize how much their alcohol use is harming their life and those around them. Studies find that more people with alcohol problems opt for treatment when their family members or employers are honest with them about their concerns, and try to help them see that drinking is preventing them from reaching their goals. Withdrawal from alcohol is best done in a controlled, supervised setting. Complications from withdrawal can be life threatening. For more information, see: Alcohol withdrawal Your health care provider should order blood and urine tests to check for health problems that are common in people who abuse alcohol. LONG-TERM SUPPORT Alcohol recovery or support programs can help you stop drinking completely. These programs usually offer: †¢Counseling and therapy to discuss alcoholism and its effects and how to control your thoughts and behaviors †¢Mental health support †¢Medical care You may be treated in a special recovery center (inpatient), or you may attend a program while you live at home (outpatient). Medications are sometimes prescribed to prevent you from drinking again. †¢Acamprosate is a drug that has been shown to lower relapse rates in those who are alcohol dependent. †¢Disulfiram (Antabuse) produces very unpleasant side effects if you drink even a small amount of alcohol within 2 weeks after taking the drug. †¢Naltrexone (Vivitrol) decreases alcohol cravings. It is available in an injectable form. You cannot take these medications if you are pregnant or have certain medical conditions. The medications are often used with long-term treatment with counseling or support groups. Depression or other mood or anxiety disorders may be noticed after you stop drinking. These should be promptly treated. It is important that the patient has a living situation that supports their need to avoid alcohol. Some programs offer housing options for people with alcoholism or alcohol abuse. Support Groups Support groups are available to help people who are dealing with alcoholism. ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA) Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a self-help group of recovering alcoholics that offers emotional support and specific steps for people recovering from alcohol dependence. The program is commonly called a â€Å"12-step† approach. There are local chapters throughout the United States. AA offers help 24 hours a day and teaches that it is possible to participate in social functions without drinking. AL-ANON Family members of a person with an alcohol abuse problem often need counseling. Al-Anon is a support group for partners and others who are affected by someone else’s alcoholism. Alateen provides support for teenage children of people with alcoholism. OTHER SUPPORT GROUPS Several other support groups are available. †¢SMART recovery teaches you have to change your thoughts and behaviors to help people with alcoholism recover. †¢LifeRing recovery and SOS are two nonreligious programs that offer support for people with alcohol abuse. †¢Women for Sobriety is a self-help group just for women. Moderation Management is a program for those who want to reduce how much they drink. It recommends abstinence for people who cannot do this. Expectations (prognosis) How well a person with alcoholism or alcohol abuse does depends on whether or not they can stop drinking. Alcoholism is a major social, economic, and public health problem. Problem drinking can affect every part of a person’s life. If you have an alcohol problem, abstinence can help improve your mental and physical health and possibly, your relationships. Treatment programs can help you quit. However, drinking again after treatment is common. It is important to have a good support system. Complications Alcoholism and alcohol abuse can increase your risk of many health problems, including: †¢Bleeding in the digestive tract †¢Brain cell damage †¢Brain disorder called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome †¢Cancer of the esophagus, liver, colon, and other areas †¢Changes in the menstrual cycle (period) †¢Delirium tremens (DT’s) †¢Dementia and memory loss †¢Depression and suicide †¢Erectile dysfunction †¢Heart damage †¢High blood pressure. †¢Inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis) †¢Liver disease, including cirrhosis †¢Nerve damage †¢Poor nutrition †¢Sleeping problems (insomnia) Alcohol use also increases your risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and violence. Drinking alcohol while you are pregnant can lead to severe birth defects in the baby. Prevention The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism recommends: †¢Women should not drink more than 1 drink per day †¢Men should not drink more than 2 drinks per day One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1? ounces of liquor.

Organizational Behavior Concepts Essay

Organization behavior concepts are the study and identification of management activities and strategies that provide employee effectiveness through understanding of the complex nature of individual, group and organization process. Organization behaviors concept draws from variety of disciplines including psychology and sociology to explain the behaviors of people in the company. Therefore concepts are methods or formulas followed to govern the individual or group productivity of the company and the effectiveness of leadership in an organization. Since more companies are looking at how to automate and improve their services, they are creating self-services opportunities for employees and streamlining application based process so as managers can focus on key issues while performing their task. This has brought about a great success to software companies for the rise in demand of their products and services. IBM being a Worlds premier single source provider for multi-vender IT solutions has a great success that encouraged more planned concept to enhance the corporation meet its target and consumers need. Human resource practices Human resource management has become one of the most important aspects of running a company. It has been realized that having a competent and a motivated workforce can help a company create a competitive advantage which other companies may find hard to replicate in the market. Therefore there is need for the company to take bold step in order to address issue of hiring and retaining a competent work force. It will begin by changing the style of leadership from the authoritative rule in order to give the workers more freedom to make their own decision as pertains to the operation of the organization. But them most important thing is for the organization to come up with a human resource plan that will be integrated in the overall growth strategy. A strategic human resource plan will define issue on hiring, retaining, training and development of the workforce in order to maintain a competitive workforce. According to the famous McGregor’s theory x and y, in x mangers assume workers are lazy and irresponsible and require constant supervision and external motivation to achieve organizational goals. The theory y managers assume workers want to work and can direct and control themselves. In advocating for theory y, managers who allow opportunities for individual challenge and initiative and who encourage participation would achieve superior performance. (Glyn 1999) Through the years, IBM has consistently practiced and emphasized the development of human relation to achieve individual goals. Through practice, The Company has managed to achieve notable achievements in attraction of new and retaining current customers. IBM has given a great consideration in strengthening relationship between the customers and the company which have brought about a great growth in sales both locally and internationally. IBM has a planned strategy to be followed by leaders and employees that avoids differences in interpretation of issues and ideas that may favor the relationship between them. The set rules govern all issues addressing any human relation in the company therefore saving money and time. The IBM has well organized bureaucratic strategies which have eliminated variability in result. When new employees are employed, they come in with different skills, experiences and goals, the rules themselves are standardized so that the personnel changes do not disrupt the whole company’s human resource management. When each individual employs personal skills, ideas and goals they may not rhyme and this may cause difference in management and definitely misunderstanding between individuals or group. Therefore this has been fully put in to consideration and has helped the company achieve in the competitive market. This have also helped the company position faster specialized skills eliminating many subjective judgments by managers where rules and regulations are established properly and have a set method to follow to avoid different individuals employing their rules hence causing conflict between the concerned parties. This has gone hand in hand with training of leaders and employees on the set rules to standardize their performance and reinforcing human resource department. IBM has currently been able to achieve the right segment in the market which has made it possible for the company to enter the main stream of the market. This was made possible close interaction between the company and customers through entering into contracts with local and international companies raising the need for close relationship and work together to fill the demand and high sales volume. Motivation Motivation is the force or impetus behind behavior and actions. This energizes behavior and directs behavior towards a goal. In IBM, managers are always expected to create a desire of working to employees by creating conducive environment and a favoring atmosphere for working. IBM has been advocating the use of reinforcement by rewarding. An attractive object or event is supplied as a consequence of a particular work done perfectly. According to behavior approach to motivation, managers have an understanding of employees motivation which begins with careful analysis of incentive and rewards that are present in the company. These incentives are like privileges and money. Its always managers responsibility in IBM to identify behaviors that need to be reinforced like outstanding performance, punctuality, neatness and completion of work. The managers are always alert to notice the desired behavior occur. Occurrence is always accompanied by reinforcement. An employee who shows an improved performance is rewarded. The principle is that reinforcement strengthens behavior and gives that exact behavior a chance to occur again. In IBM, cognitive approach state that behavior is determiner by over thinking and not reward or punishment, it is initiated and regulated by mental process and not external events. Managers’ role in motivation is to help workers develop on curiosity and help them develop methods for searching for information. In IBM, workers are trained to be intrinsically motivated. The social working approach is an integration of cognitive and behavior aspect. This theory sees motivation as a product of two main forces, individual expectations of success in a task and vicarious experience. Individual expectation of success is determined by personal effectiveness, personal effectiveness is also called self efficiency and refers to personal confidence. The manager should empower employees to become competent in performing a task. If the empl9oyee knows that he will succeed in doing a task, then his motivation will be high. Vicarious experience constitutes the observation of other workers and compares performance. If the worker discovers that his performance is poor, he may lose his sense of competence. In this respect the manager should the employee to keep up with level of performance of other employees so that motivation is highlighted. Though intrinsic motivation comes from the worker, is referred to as ego involvement. This results from employees identification with desired goal. The employee is fully involved in learning a task. Managers task is to empower the employee to identify with that work if the need for confidence is made. Competence means ability to perform) Ability to master every a task also mean competitiveness. In a task every employee has interest and desire to perform confidently in a company’s task. Managers’ role is to discover how to empower the employee to achieve. In IBM corporation managers assist the employee by providing them with opportunity to become competent and help them to avoid failure. They achieve this by giving them a task that they are intellectually capable of achieving. When an employee is successful in performing a task, his self concept is enhanced and this gives great respect to the company. In IBM Corporation, motivation is displayed in personal goals and that very many motives are personalized depending on what the company wants to achieve. These personalized goals determine individual level of aspiration. Due to continued success, there is always an aspiration to modify and develop company’s strategies that would enhance better performance for both managers and employees. Organizational structure The IBM Corporation has a well planned leadership strategy which is an important factor that determines the viability of an organization operation. Good leadership is responsible for growth of the organization while unplanned leadership is responsible for drift in an organization. Planning mode of leadership, there should be a procedure to follow and that will help in determining the weaker points in the leadership therefore avoiding drift. Management is the most important factor that determines the viability of any organization operation. Good management is responsible for growth of the organization while bad managements can be held responsible for collapse of organizations. The IBM Corporation is currently being held at ransom by the kind of leadership structure. There are many kinds of leadership that are used in running organizations depending on the kind of the organization. In IBM the authoritative kind of leadership in the organization has been responsible for some of the problems like making of decision for the organization. In this regard it is clear that there is a problem in making decision since they are made from the top and the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) has to be consulted before any decision is made despite the fact that there are other people in the organization who are more experienced in this work. Authoritative leadership holds the organization to the management and it discourages innovation since the CEO has to be consulted on all matters regarding the operation of the organization. The CEO acts to provide guidance for the organization and one of the duties of CEO are to delegate duties of the office. In this regard, the CEO has to give some of the authority to other managers in the organization in order to decentralize decision making process. Rise in the interest in developing people through out the organization could be attributed to a number of factors. In IBM, employees are taking broader ranges of responsibility, managers, in particular are faced with a completely new environment. They are responsible for more people often worked in strategy-oriented companies and therefore, the skills and competencies that previously served them well no longer work. They have to make fundamental changes and come up with more planned productive strategies to avoid drift. (Jackson 2005) Advertisement is another most important component that characterizes the operation of IBM Corporation in the market since it raises the awareness of the consumers about the availability of the products in the market. Therefore a well planned advertisement is an important component that helps a company to penetrate the market especially when introducing a new product. Lack of a planned advertisement may have limited growth of the company which in return may cause losses in the company. Keeping in mind that the company is operating in a very competitive market, there is a need to plan strategies to follow to avoid any sort of dissatisfaction to the customers which may lead to a drift. IBM Corporation market has a wide scope which comprises of many factors. These factors are essential for the maintenances of businesses competitiveness of the services and goods being delivered by the company in the market, either in goods or services, the IBM marketing team has the privileges of collecting relevant data from its market target which quite fundamental is its goods and service improvements that enable the maintenances of high competitiveness in the international markets. (Michael 1993) When introducing a new technology in the organization, IBM Corporation has a proper planning that enables the employees adapt and learn much quicker because lack of proper planning can cause a drift that may be hard to recover. The corporation has set strategies to be followed and adequate training to lessen the risk of taking more time omitting other duties. The introduction of new technology in a company has caused a drift in many companies for most managers command employees on making use of technology that they are not used to therefore causing alternation of formally followed rules. Example, if the company has been using paper work may in accounting department, introduction of computers may alter the set road map because of training and mental ideas that one is supposed to do more than before therefore causing a drift. To avoid this, the IBM Corporation has set a long term planning and informs the employees in advance so as they may be prepared physically, mentally and psychologically to avoid more excitement on introduction of the new technology. Conclusion If the company fails to have a proper planning, is likely to be faced by many challenges. One of the biggest challenges the company is likely to face in the structure of the business in the sense that will be difficult to change or recover. The managers may work hard but the competitors may continue enjoying great profits due to lack of proper management strategy. Management should be well planed and strictly followed to know the weaker parts of management. A well addressed strategy in all areas of leadership will enhance a greater interest in the company, workers participation and productivity. In IBM, the relationship between managers, employees and consumers is valued and put in to great consideration, this is encouraged because it gives a good reputation to the company hence increasing its business achievements world wide.

Abrasive Water Jet Cutting Report Engineering Essay

Up until about the mid twentieth Century the bulk of production relied on â€Å" two traditional procedures of forming and machining ( Tlusty, 2000 ) . Forming is the procedure of altering the form of the whole work piece, whereas machining removes merely certain, and desired countries. Whilst these cardinal procedures still form the really anchor of contemporary production, there has besides been the demand for new procedures to be developed. The traditional procedures, as highlighted above, have a figure of built-in restrictions which limit their application to industry. In the instance of conventional machining procedures, a crisp film editing tool is used to organize a bit from the work by shear distortion. This consequences in the formation of high forces together with the corresponding mechanical energies. Together with this are a figure of extra jobs that can originate. Due to sum of energy required to transport out the operation, a physique up of unwanted heat can happen, which frequently leads to deformation of the work piece and surface snap. In certain instances, the forces introduced by the procedure are highly high and in order to procure the work piece considerable clamping forces are required ; this excessively can take to deformation. Together with these restrictions, the development of stuffs with belongingss of high strength, high hardness and high stamina has driven the debut of untraditional machining methods. Nontraditional machining ( NTM ) methods have been developed since World War II in an effort to turn to machining demands which can non be carried out by conventional methods entirely ( DeGarmo, Black & A ; Kohser, 2003 ) . NTM methods provide the ability to machine: Complex geometries ; Components with an first-class surface coating ; Delicate constituents, which otherwise would non defy the clamping forces ; and Brittle stuffs or stuffs with really high hardness. There are four types of untraditional procedures ; classified harmonizing to the principle signifier of energy used to consequence stuff remotion. These include: mechanical, electrical, thermic and chemical. One procedure which falls into the mechanical class is scratchy H2O jet ( AWJ ) film editing, and will be the focal point of this study. First, and prior to discoursing AWJ, the procedure of H2O jet ( WJ ) film editing will be introduced.Water Jet Cutting ( WJC )Water jet film editing, which is besides known as waterjet machining and hydrodynamic machining, was foremost developed in 1968, followed by the first commercial system in 1971 ( Zhong & A ; Han, 2003 ) . Through the usage of a all right, hard-hitting, high-speed watercourse of H2O directed at the work piece ( surface ) , a cut is created, as illustrated in figure 1 below. In order to bring forth the all right watercourse of H2O, a nose with an gap ( opening ) typically in the order of 0.1 – 0.4mm is used ( Groover , 1996 ) . Together with this, runing force per unit areas of around 400MPa and above are used to supply sufficient energy for cutting to be carried out. Furthermore, the fluid of the jet can frequently make 900m/s and the cardinal procedure parametric quantities include: H2O force per unit area, opening diameter, H2O flow rate and the working or ‘standoff ‘ distance between the nose and the work piece. Figure 1 – Schematic of WJC Process ( Groover, 1996 ) As the typical film editing force per unit areas as mentioned are required, a hydraulic pump is used to supercharge the fluid. The fluid is so passed through a valve, which regulates the flow rate in order to accomplish the optimal cut. The concluding phase of the fluid is to go through through the nozzle opening and impact the work piece surface from a controlled tallness.Procedure ParametersThe stuff from which the nose is made is doubtless the most of import parametric quantity in footings of procedure control ( as this greatly determines the opening diameter ) . The nozzle unit comprises of a unstained steel holder, together with a gem ; normally sapphire, ruby or diamond. Of these stuffs, diamond lasts the longest but is the most expensive. Recent progresss in the production of man-made sapphire offer this stuff as non merely the most cost effectual solution, but besides due to other advantages excessively. Man-made sapphire can be machined moderately accurately and besides has a high opposition to have on. The most common causes of nozzle failure are due to sedimentations come ining the fluid watercourse, therefore underscoring the demand for high degrees of filtration of the fluid prior to pressurisation, to cut down nozzle wear. With proper nozzle design a tight, coherent waterjet can be produced and maintained really accurately. When transporting out the cutting procedure, both the opening diameter and the ‘standoff ‘ distance must be closely monitored to keep a changeless deepness of cut. As the nozzle wears, compensatory alterations in the draw tallness must be made. Although existent draw distances vary from beginning to beginning, distances in the order of millimeters are normal ; normally around 0.25 – 3.5mm.WJC: Advantages and DisadvantagesWJC offers many advantages over conventional machining methods. This machining procedure provides the ability to cut stuffs without firing or oppressing the work piece. Furthermore, no important heat is generated, therefore, deformation is minimised and in some instances, eliminated. Unlike machining or grinding, no dust is produced ensuing in small environmental pollution. Other advantages include minimum material loss and easiness of mechanization when used with numerical control and industrial automatons. Whilst such advantages exist, one of the chief disadvantages to H2O jet film editing is that there are merely a limited figure of stuffs that can be cut economically ( MTU, 2009 ) . Although it is possible to cut tool steels utilizing this procedure, the provender rates have to be greatly reduced and therefore the edged clip increased. This, in kernel, consequences in a high cost procedure. Such stuffs that can be cut utilizing the H2O jet procedure include: plastics, fabrics, complexs, floor tiles, rug, leather and composition board.Abrasive Water Jet Cutting ( AWJC )To allow the film editing of difficult stuffs such as ceramics, metals and glass, together with those softer stuffs, for illustration froth and gum elastic, the WJC procedure requires the add-on of scratchy atoms, therefore organizing the scratchy H2O jet ( AWJ ) cutting technique. In a similar mode to WJC, the procedure is carried out utilizing a high-pressure, high-speed watercourse of H2O ; nevertheless, the discrepancy being that an scratchy stuff is dra wn in by a vacuity, which is created by jet watercourse. Figure 2 – Schematic of AWJC Process ( Meier, Louis & A ; Pilot, 1995 ) Figure 2 illustrates a typical apparatus for transporting out scratchy H2O jet film editing. It can be seen that this follows closely the agreement of WJC equipment, nevertheless, with the add-on of a twosome of cardinal characteristics ; viz. the scratchy eating system and a ‘catcher ‘ , which is required to protect the environment from the high energy jet.Procedure ParametersAs antecedently highlighted, the WJC procedure depends on a figure of parametric quantities. Whilst many of these are movable to the AWJC procedure, there are besides add-ons to reflect the alteration in cutting method. Momber & A ; Kovacevic ( 1998 ) present a list of such parametric quantities, which can be seen in figure 3 below. Figure 3 – AWJC procedure parametric quantities ( Momber & A ; Kovacevic, 1998 ) Although it is by and large accepted by many writers including JankoviA†¡ ( 2008 ) that the nose or opening diameter is the cardinal film editing parametric quantity, in the instance of AWJC, the abradant besides has considerable influences on the quality of the cut achieved. A choice of the parametric quantities as listed above has been explored in the subsequent subdivision, followed by an overview of the entire system control in the subdivision thenceforth.Procedure Parameters: Overview of Observed InfluencesThe most of import parametric quantity, by far, is the orifice diameter. The deepness of cut is straight relative to the opening diameter ; nevertheless, making an optimal point at big diameters. Although related to pump force per unit area, figure 4 below clearly illustrates this point, demoing how the deepness of cut varies with opening diameter. Figure 4 – Influence of opening diameter on the deepness of cut ( HeI?ling, 1988 ) Another parametric quantity that is closely linked to the opening diameter is the focal point diameter. This component of the cutting equipment determines the strength of the watercourse, therefore holding a direct consequence on the material remotion rate as shown by figure 5 below. Figure 5 – Influence of focal point diameter on the volume remotion rate ( Blickwedel, 1990 ) The focal point diameter is of import non merely in footings of the volume remotion rate but besides the deepness of cut. Figure 6 below shows how the deepness of cut is besides determined by this parametric quantity ; diminishing as the focal point diameter additions. The lessening in deepness of cut following an optimal point is realised by Himmelreich ( 1992 ) and has been attributed to high grades of turbulency. On the other manus, a peculiarly little focal point diameter gives rise to particle hit and clash, giving an inefficient procedure. Figure 6 – Influence of focal point diameter on the deepness of cut ( HeI?ling, 1988 ) Of the cutting parametric quantities listed, the crossbeam rate can be said to hold the greatest influence on the film editing procedure, followed closely by the draw distance. Both of these parametric quantities are controlled by machine design and therefore are bound by the makers ‘ specification. Figures 7 and 8 overleaf illustrate the influence of both the crossbeam rate and draw distance. It can be clearly seen that the deepness of cut lessenings as the crossbeam rate additions, following closely that of a squared map. However, on the other manus, the relationship between the draw distance and the deepness of cut is moderately additive ; with the deepness of cut decreasing as the draw distance additions. A big figure of scratchy stuffs are available for usage in AWJC. Typically these are loosely categorised as either oxides or silicates and there are, in a similar manner to the whole procedure, many parametric quantities that determine the features of an abradant. Figure 7 – Influence of crossbeam rate ( left ) and standoff distance ( right ) on the deepness of cut ( Blickwedel, 1990 ) Whilst it is hard to state precisely which parametric quantity has the greatest influence on the procedure, it is clear that both the hardness of the stuff together with the atom form and size, need consideration. Typical hardness values vary from 30 HV for Cd up to 200 HV for B carbide ( Kriegel & A ; Palmour, 1961 ) . Figure 8 shows the influence of both the atom form and size, whereas figure 9 overleaf high spots the significance of the mass flow rate of abradant on the deepness of cut achieved. Figure 8 – Influence of abradant ( atom ) diameter and size on the deepness of cut( Ohlsen, 1997 ; Oweinah, 1989 )Figure 9 – Influence of scratchy mass flow on the deepness of cut( Oweinah, 1989 )Abrasive Water Jet Cutting: Associated ProblemsIt is clear from the old subdivision that there are many parametric quantities that have an consequence on the AWJC procedure. If such parametric quantities are non carefully controlled, so the efficiency of the procedure decreases along with the quality of the machined portion. Some of the associated jobs are presented in table 1.Problem and definitionParameter ( s ) affected byConsequence on constituentTaper. This characteristic arises due to a difference in the breadth of the cut at the top surface and the bottom surface and is given as a ratio ( besides flank angle ) . Abrasive mass flow rate Focus diameter Standoff distance Trave rate This characteristic determines the dimensional truth of the portion. Initial Damage Zone. Abrasive atoms impact the surface at normal angles doing craters and abrasive-wear paths. Standoff distance Focus diameter ( Abrasive atom size – composite stuffs ) Some fictile distortion can happen. Change ( debasement ) in surface roughness/waviness. Trave rate Focus diameter/length Abrasive mass flow rate Abrasive atom size/type Surface belongingss of stuff are non as desired. Decrease in fatigue life of cut stuff due to check formation. Abrasive atom size Fatigue life reduced. Onset of stress-corrosion snap. Surface indurating due to procedure. Abrasive stuff Variation of hardness at distance from cut. Micro-structural alterations: Surface checking Phase alterations Abrasive-particle fragment implanting Delamination in composite stuffs Burr formation Assorted Assorted Table 1 – Problems that can originate when transporting out AWJCAbrasive Water Jet Cutting: Control MethodsTo guarantee such issues as those mentioned in table 1 do non happen, accurate control mechanisms must be in topographic point. There are many supervising mechanisms in topographic point today, some of which have been briefly described below. These methods lead to the control of the cutting procedure ; nevertheless, this is non automated in these instances. Jet-Structure Monitoring – used to command focal point diameter. Diameter of entry to concentrate point monitored to reflect alterations of focal point diameter. Wear rate can be monitored utilizing this method. Acoustic Sensing – used to supervise overall focal point conditions. System based on the fact that a alteration in the focal point conditions ( orifice diameter and concentrate diameter ) affects the sound generated by the system. Figure 10 ( overleaf ) illustrates the difference between the acoustic form of a new and worn nose. Inductive Measurement – used to supervise scratchy H2O jet speed. Method requires magnetic scratchy atoms. Abrasive jet is encircled by two little spirals, which is connected to a detection system. When the atom passes through the spiral, a little electric signal is created and the velocity determined. Figure 11 shows the typical apparatus of equipment, in this instance. Besides, laser systems similar to the above, nevertheless utilizing light pulsations alternatively. Material-Removal Visualisation – used to supervise material remotion rate. In a similar mode to Acoustic Sensing, noise of cut is monitored. Frequency of signal indicates type of cut ( inter-granular/trans-granular failure ) and therefore determines the efficiency of the cut. Workpiece Reaction Force – used to supervise deepness of incursion and surface topography. Empirical expression that takes into history all input parametric quantities excepting the crossbeam rate. Can go a force-feedback system ; leting parametric quantities to be modified to cut down the force. Figure 10 – Acoustic form for new and worn nose ( Kovacevic & A ; Evizi, 1990 ) Figure 11 – Initiation monitoring system ( Swanson, Kilman & A ; Cerwin, 1987 ) The above systems offer a chiefly generic attack to system patterning and supply small or no feedback. Modern control of AWJC makes usage of an intelligent monitoring and control system, which has full feedback capablenesss. Such an illustration by Srinivasu & A ; Babu ( 2008 ) utilises two systems: machine-vision based monitoring and intelligent control. The vision based portion monitors the size of the concentrating nose and the control system, which uses unreal nervous webs, continually modifies each parametric quantity to accomplish the best cut. A full analysis of this system is nevertheless beyond the range of this study. Abrasive Water Jet Cutting: Overview of Applications The applications of AWJC are huge, covering industries such as aerospace, automotive and electronics. It is beyond the range of this study to cover any peculiar country in important item ; nevertheless a few illustrations have been given below. Traditional and perchance even simple procedures have been ignored, and alternatively this study concentrates on a few non-standard applications.Meat CutingOne application of AWJ cutting is in the meat processing industry. Harmonizing to Wang & A ; Shanmugam ( 2008 ) , meat film editing is an of import activity and factors such as the cost, the presentation and sliting all need consideration. In this instance, salt is used as an scratchy and really good quality cuts, when compared to conventional film editing and even plain H2O jet film editing, can be achieved.Crunching Wheel ProductionThis illustration is slightly different to all other applications of AWJC as in most instances a through cut is desired. Axinte et Al. ( 2009 ) present an turn ing application, whereby crunching wheels are shaped harmonizing to their specification. Whilst this is considered a niche market, the writers conclude that AWJC has non merely the economical but besides proficient advantage for fabrication of this constituent. Assorted determining operations can be carried out, ensuing in such merchandises as figure 12 below. Figure 12 – Examples of crunching wheels manufactured utilizing AWJC ( Axinte et al. , 2009 )Polishing of SteelAnother application of AWJC is smoothing, and in peculiar steel. Yan et Al. ( 2008 ) describe this application, foregrounding that electrical-discharge machining ( EDM ) is normally used for mold production. The writers province that EDM typically leaves a brickle recast bed ; taking to the application of this smoothing method. When compared to traditional methods, AWJC has a lower scratchy ingestion and recycling is improved. In this illustration the abradant is SiC and to help the procedure is covered in wax. This consequences in a much finer surface coating.Complexs ProcessingThere are many applications of AWJC in relation to complexs treating as in some instances traditional single-point film editing procedures can non be used. For illustration, Komanduri ( 1997 ) describes that it is non possible to machine SiC whisker-reinforced aluminum oxide with a single-poin t film editing tool ; nevertheless, that it may be possible to determine by crunching. Whilst some complexs can be approached in this manner, rapid tool wear is experienced and therefore the debut of AWJC is a much better method.DecisionThe old subdivision provides a figure of non-standard illustrations where AWJC is being used. Although these give a general overview, AWJC can besides be used for alternate machining procedures, such as: milling, turning, piercing, boring ( although non level bottomed holes ) and thread film editing ( Momber & A ; Kovacevic, 1998 ) . Although such procedures as above can be achieved, in a similar instance to before there are many parametric quantities that need to be monitored. This is possibly a downside to this untraditional method unless modern control methods are introduced. Further disadvantages of the procedure include the fact that degradable stuffs can non be cut and the surface coating of machined constituents relies to a great extent on the procedure. Possibly the most important consideration of using this procedure is the apparatus cost ; which can be highly high in certain instances. One other disadvantage is the noise created by this fabrication procedure. Although, as highlighted above, there are many factors that control the procedure its application to modern industry has grown significantly since its debut in the 1970 ‘s. This has been driven chiefly by technological promotions, therefore leting this procedure to be developed, but besides due to of all time germinating stuffs that serve technology applications of today.

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