Dell Business Analysis: Organisation and Effectiveness

Dell Business Analysis: Organisation and Effectiveness Summary The research is about study of distribution channel management at Dell Computers, UK. My work is more practical in nature, studying the Distribution Channels of Dell, both at a strategic and an operational level. I would be analysing the business function on its efficiency and effectiveness, comparing with the other industry performers. I would mostly be comparing the function against Sony Electronics, the most respected name in multi-channel distribution network; Acer, pioneer of value computing products and proprietary brands like Advent. The research aims to analyse and study the distribution channel of Dell in UK, distribution channel of its competitors, efficiency and effectiveness of Dells Distribution channel as compared to its competitors. And based on the research and analysis propose recommendations to enhance its effectiveness. The literature review section of the dissertation explores the definition of distribution, channel, and distribution channel and distribution channel management. Apart from that the section also examines the activities and the levels of distribution channel. The latter half of the section focuses on the distribution strategy adopted by Dell, Sony and Acer. Research is conducted by means of case study as well as survey. Case study analysis incorporates the study and effectiveness of the distribution strategy of Acer, Sony and Dell. Two set of questionnaires are designed to collect data from the end customer and the channel partners. Apart from that secondary data is used from from books, journals, company reports and documents, government websites whereas primary data is collected by means of survey questionnaire distributed channel partners and the end customers. In all 50 questionnaires are collected duly filled out of 60 questionnaires being sent out to the end customer whereas the questionnaire for the channel partners was send to 50 channel partners out of which only 30 responses were received. Questionnaires were sent out using survey distribution services of a web site. Care was taken to ensure that diverse demographic is covered for the survey. The research has its own drawbacks such as the work limited to the English market. Financial and time constraints of my semester mean that Im not able to conduct a global research that would be more apt in this case. Another limitation is most of my work is conducted through a personal observation method; as such it is prone to my personal bias. Thirdly distribution channel model is a sensitive piece of company information. As far as information on the competitors distribution channel is concerned its bit difficult. CHAPTER 1: Introduction This chapter will introduce the topic, specify the key aim and objectives of the dissertation, discuss the research approach and state the dissertation outline. The key aim of this chapter is to establish the foundation for the research topic by giving out basic information. 1.1 Introduction The research is about study of distribution channel management at Dell Computers, UK. The dissertation is more practical in nature, studying the Distribution Channels of Dell, both at a strategic and an operational level. I would be analysing the business function on its efficiency and effectiveness, comparing with the other industry performers. I would mostly be comparing the function against Sony Electronics, the most respected name in multi-channel distribution network; Acer, pioneer of value computing products and proprietary brands like Advent. Dell Inc. is a multibillion dollar, multinational technology firm that manufactures, develops, sells and supports personal computing and computer related products. Dell has seen a rapid growth to become one of the top three vendors in the PC manufacturing industry, and has seen a substantial increase in share price and market value. While many other companies were unable to handle the demands of the competition, Dell has proved successful in such an environment. The main key to success to Dell has been its two innovative practices that is direct sales and build-to-order business model. This model is simple as a concept but highly complex to execute, especially in the present conditions of rapid growth and change. Dell has continually renewed and extended its business model while striking a balance between control and edibility. Dell made changes in its design, manufacturing, procurement, and logistics processes to reduce the costs, and to speed up the entire distribution system. It has expanded into International markets and it started making notebook and server product lines which has led to extraordinary profits for dell, and has given a great market value for the company. Dell has reached sales of $18.2 billion by the year 1998, with a profit of $1.46 billion, and Dells market share in the PC market grew from 3% in 1995 to 9.2% in the year 1999 with stock price increasing by 40 times. Dells market capitalization has reached $100 billion. 1.2 Research aim and Questions The primary purpose of my research work is to analyse the role distribution channels play in the functioning of a business, both in the long run and in the short run. My study is to present a detailed description of the unique distribution channel adopted by Dell Inc., analyse its efficiency and effectiveness, identify possible loopholes and put forth recommendations for development. My study is being undertaken with an aim to answer the following research questions: * How are the various distribution channels organised within Dell Inc.? * How does it compare with its competitors? * How effective and efficient is this channel management at Dell? * What can be done to make it better? The four research questions are the guiding blocks of my entire research and all of the work would be done, keeping them in view. Distribution Channels within Dell: I would be looking at Dells innovative distribution channel management which has literally revolutionised the importance of Direct Marketing in the consumer electronics space. Direct marketing is still the primary distribution mechanism within Dell. I would be documenting the evolution of this concept within Dell right from its customized sales regime during PCs Limited to the complex and sophisticated systems that it employs currently. I would be presenting a visual of the entire distribution network that it stands at today. Comparison with its competitors: I would be comparing the dynamic distribution systems of its arch rivals. Sony and Acer are the brands that I would be concentrating upon. I would be looking at the strategies adopted in different economies, though my primary concentration would be on the English markets. Efficiency and Effectiveness: I would be conducting an efficiency and effectiveness test of Dells powerful distribution network against its competitors. This would be an empirical study. I would be concentrating on the parameters of Customer Satisfaction and Vendor relationship management. Recommendations: Finally, I would be putting forth recommendations for future developments along with the cost benefit analysis of such implementations. 1.3 Research approach The study is conducted by collecting secondary data and primary data. Secondary data is collected from books, journals, government websites, company documents whereas primary data is collected by means of survey questionnaire distributed among channel partners and the end customers. Participants of research would be intermediaries in the distribution network and the end customer. In order to select the participants the study has made use of stratified random sampling method in order to make sure that major demographic segments are represented while selecting the samples (Rao Skinner, 1996). Questionnaire design consists of two parts. The first part contained the demographic information while the second part dwelled on each of the subjects perception on each variable using five point likert scales from 1 (â€Å"Strongly Agree†) to 5(â€Å"Strongly Disagree†). The study did not require any assistance from a third party or any other institution. In order to collect data the study made use of web portal survey to distribute survey and get responses. The system was designed in such a way that the respondent have to submit all the answers. Out of 60 questionnaires, responses for 50 surveys were obtained. The duration for the survey was kept as two weeks, a reminder mail was being sent to the respondents at the end of week one to remind them. 1.4 Importance of the study Organizations have been undergoing strategic changes over the past decade. More so in the past couple of years. The current recession has proved that risk management and strategic planning are most vital for an organizations long lasting and self-sustaining performance. My work will strive to highlight one such areas of strategic thinking and inform the senior management about the benefits involved. 1.5 Research Scope My work would primarily be concentrated on the UK market. Though Dell is a global corporation with intermediaries present across the globe, all working towards forming an effective value chain to maximize business potential and ensure efficiency in operations; UK being the second biggest market after the US will be a general approximation of the entire organizational behaviour. Furthermore, the cosmopolitan nature of London and demographic diversity ensures that it would be a close estimate of the general population. 1.5 Limitation of Research I intend to undertake my research as comprehensively as possible. As in any research work, inherent are some unavoidable drawbacks in my study. Few of them are: * Financial and Time Constraints: As outlined before, the scope of my work is limited to the English market. Financial and time constraints of my semester mean that Im not able to conduct a global research that would be more apt in this case. * Personal bias. Most of my work is conducted through a personal observation method; as such it is prone to my personal bias. However as the person who is to do the entire research right from formulation of research questions to recommending solutions, I would be most qualified to comment on the topic. * Information Constraints. Distribution channel model is a sensitive piece of company information. Though I have secured access to Dell, wherein I could do all the data mining myself, the extent of information that I would be able to muster about the rivals model is still to be seen. 1.5 Dissertation outline The structure of the dissertation is as follows Chapter 1: Chapter 1 encompass introduction to the topic, followed by brief background into the research topic. This beginning chapter also lays bare aims and objectives of the research followed by structure of the thesis. Apart from that this chapter also gives information on the research approach adopted and the limitations of the research. Chapter 2: The literature review section of the dissertation explores the definition of distribution, channel, and distribution channel and distribution channel management. Apart from that the section also examines the activities and the levels of distribution channel. The latter half of the section focuses on the distribution strategy adopted by Dell, Sony and Acer. The final section compares the distribution strategy by all the three players. Chapter 3: The thesis then moves on to methodology section wherein the research model, research framework and data collection methodology is discussed. Questionnaire method is used to collect the necessary data from the consumer. Chapter 4: This chapter explores data findings Chapter 5: This chapter presents the conclusion. Chapter 6: This includes references using Harvard referencing style Chapter 7: This includes the Appendix 1.6 Summary The chapter introduced the topic of the dissertation, specified the key aims and objectives of the research. Discussed the research approach in form of secondary and primary data collection through the means of questionnaire and clearly stated the limitations of the research in brief. The chapter also outlines the research structure specifying the contents of each chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review During my research, I would primarily be looking towards the concepts of Distribution Channel and its management. I would be guided by the various contributions in the field, though my work would primarily be influenced by the theories and suggestions of Philip Kotler in the area. A Professor of Business Studies at the Kelloggs Business School, Kotler is often regarded as the ‘Father of Modern Marketing. My work also coincides with various other management thinking like Consumer Behaviour, Relationship Management, Marketing Mix and Optimization, among others. 2.1 Definition 2.1.1 Distribution Kotler (1996) states that distribution is a key element in the marketing mix (place amongst the 4Ps). It is the systems and practices in use which make a product or service available to the consumer of such a product or service. 2.1.2 Channel Channel is defined as â€Å"a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for consumption or use† (Gorchels, West, Marien, 2004). It can also encompass physical movement, warehousing, ownership of the product, presale transaction, post-sale activities; order processing, credit and collections; and other different types of support activities (Gorchels, West, Marien, 2004). 2.1.3 Distribution Channel The Distribution Channel is the chain of intermediaries, each of them passing on the product or service to another intermediary until it reaches the consumer. The business dictionary defines it as â€Å"The route by which a product or service is moved from a producer or supplier to customers. A distribution channel usually consists of a chain of intermediaries, including wholesalers, retailers, and distributors, that is designed to transport goods from the point of production to the point of consumption in the most efficient way† (Dictionary, 2010) Another definition of Distribution channel states â€Å"A group of independent and interdependent organizations involved in the sale and movement of goods and services to the end users may be called a distribution channel or network† (Gorchels, West, Marien, 2004). More specifically, a distribution channel is: * The transfer of goods from manufacturer to the end user. * Route of a company for distributing the goods. * The process of moving goods from the manufacturer to the consumer. * A supply chain consisting of all parties in between production to the end user. 2.2 Types of channel members The activities in the distribution channel can be carried out by the marketer himself or it can be carried out by specialist organizations. The specialist organizations and the channel members can be categorized into two types. * Resellers * Specialty Service Firms. Resellers are the companies which usually buy and take the ownership of the products from the manufacturer with the intention of selling to end consumers. An organization can have one or more than one reseller in the chain. The network or chain of resellers is known as reseller network. The resellers can be further classified into: Retailers: A retailer sells the product directly to the end customer. Wholesalers: Wholesalers buy the products from manufacturer or other wholesalers and then they sell the products to the retailers. Industrial Distributors: They are the ones who sell products from one business to other, they are suppliers who buy the goods and sell it to another firm. Specialty service firms are organizations that do not take the ownership of the products. They also provide additional services along with the products. Specialty firms can be: Agents and brokers: They are the firms which bring together the suppliers and buyers and mediate the sale and they charge a fee for this kind of service. Distribution service firms: They provide services which help with the movement of goods in the distribution channels like transportation, processing and storage of goods and products. Others: They are the firms which provide other services to the channels in distribution like insurance, routing assistance etc. The distribution channels consist of many parties among which each of them is trying to meet their objectives. Relationships between channel members should be strong with each others especially on which they are depending for the further distribution of product. 2.3 Levels The arrangement of the distribution channels can be classified into two types: * Independent channel arrangements. * Dependent channel arrangements. Independent channel arrangements: In this type of arrangement the channel members negotiate deals with others which do not result in the binding of the relationships. Channel members are free to make arrangements which they feel is in their own and best interest. An individual member decides what is best for them and not the entire channel. This is also called conventional distribution arrangement and often significant conflict as each member decides what is best for him and not in concern with the entire channel As shown in the figure 2 there are four levels of distribution channels. Channel 1 is called the direct marketing channel which is the distribution of products or services from the manufacturer to the customer. The best example for this channel is Dell which does not makes use of any intermediaries to distribute its products to end customers; there are no retailers, agents or wholesalers. The channel does not have any intermediaries. This type of channel helps to eradicate the excess cost and also helps to have good control over the quality and marketing. The other three channels fall in the category of â€Å"indirect marketing channels†. As shown in the figure 1, the second channel has one intermediary, if the market is a consumer market the one intermediary is basically a retailer. Electronic consumer goods market of UK is an example of second type of channel arrangement. In this type of distribution arrangement the companies sell good to large retail chains, example would be Sony, Canon, and HP selling their electronic goods to large retail chains such as Dixons. These retailers in return sell the goods to the end customer. As shown in the figure Channel 3 consists of two levels which are the wholesaler and the retailer. The role of the wholesale in this channel is to buy the products at bulk from the manufacturer and then sell the same to retailer in smaller quantities. This model works best for retailers on small scale and not for big chains such as Dixons. This type of distribution channel is best when there are large number of small retailers and not big companies. Example in this case would be the medical drugs distribution market in the UK. The fourth channel has added level to it in the form of agents who work as intermediary between manufacturer and wholesaler. The agent acts as representative for both the sides. This works in textile market. Figure 2 gives information on the four types of distribution channel. Dell follows the manufacturer to direct customer channel thus discarding the intermediaries in between. Source: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IIT-MADRAS/Management_Science_II/Pdf/1_4.pdf A direct distribution channel is where a company sells their products direct to consumers. While direct channels were not popular many years ago, the Internet has greatly increased the use of direct channels. Additionally, companies needing to cut costs may use direct channels to avoid middlemen mark-ups on their products. Distributors, wholesalers and retailers are the primary indirect channels a company may use when selling their products in the marketplace. Companies choose the indirect channel best suited for their product to obtain the best market share; it also allows them to focus on producing their goods. Though, in practicality, a number of other players exist, they can be generalised to the above. The specific channel of distribution adopted by a company depends, to a major extent, on its business model, the industry type and the scale of its operations. As an Instance, Sony has its own set of company operated exclusive showrooms. The strong brand equity of Sony, the scale of its business and clearly identifiable product differentiations that it enjoys with the consumers, allow it to leverage on its economies of scale and scope by operating its own outlets. Directly, this result in better margins for the company and indirectly it helps building on its already demanding brand leadership. Dell, on the other hand, relies more on online sales. This is because of the organization of its service delivery utility. Dells business model is based upon its centralised manufacturing facilities, rather than the nuclear organization at Sony. Online sales suits such a strategy by negating the high costs of transportation and inventory planning issues involved. A manufacturer selling a physical product might require three channels: Sales Channel, Delivery Channel, and Service Channel. In Our case, Dell uses telephone and internet as sales channels, express mail services as the delivery channel and local repair people as its service channel. 2.4 Distribution Channel Activities Distribution includes different range of activities (Richard Gay, 2007) * Linking many suppliers to provide wide range of consumer choice * Assist the exchange process identify the needs of the buyer in the context of product categories, quantities, range etc. and devise manufacturing, inventory and packaging schedules to fit. * Marketing information: This encompass collection, distribution and analysing marketing research information such as the past sales data about the players within the organizations marketing environment. * Promotional activities- This involves setting of promotional objectives and activating the various elements of the marketing communications mix and measuring their effectiveness, this will encompass identify and communicate with prospects. * Pricing: Deciding on the sales terms and conditions at each stage of the value chain * Risk management This includes analysis and resource sourcing required for involvement in the channel , the degree of control and influence and the potential benefits such as revenue and profit generation. * Physical Distribution Management It includes the transportation all aspects of warehousing management and information flows. Other Activities that may be part of the distribution channels are as follows: * Order Generation. * Handling of Goods. * Shipping of Goods. * Storage of Goods. * Display of Goods. * Promotion of Goods. * Sale. * Feedback. 2.5 Distribution Channel Management Distribution Channel Management is all about getting the product or service to the right people at the right time under the constraints of profits, efficiency and effectiveness. Successful marketing does not end when a business has developed a product or service and has found its appropriate target audience with a view to selling it at the right price. The next issue that needs to be faced is how they are going to distribute and sell this product/service to these people- the consumers. When a product/service is purchased by a consumer, it may have been bought directly from the business, or it may have been through a number of intermediaries (wholesaler, retailer, etc.): these are known as distribution channels. Small businesses need to acknowledge the different types of distribution channels to utilize sales potential. Distribution channel management involves a lot of channel decisions, strategic alternatives and numerous linking concepts, all of which would be explored in my research paper. Distribution channel management involves a lot of channel decisions, strategic alternatives and numerous linking concepts. The PC industry is driven by rapid technological improvements in components, particularly microprocessors, other semiconductors, and storage devices. The improved performance of hardware has been matched historically by increased complexity of software, creating demand for the latest hardware. Figure 2 PC Supply Chain This means that time is a critical competitive factor in the industry in two ways: * Firstly, excess inventory loses value (at an estimated 10% per month 😉 and costs money; * Secondly, products incorporating the most advanced technologies are in high demand and carry a price premium. As a result, companies that minimize inventory and bring new products to market faster can reduce costs, increase market share, and maintain higher margins. Two factors come into play in determining the ability of PC companies to manage inventory and introduce new products. First is the standardized, modular nature of the PC. PCs are built from standard components, using common architectural interfaces determined largely by Intel, Microsoft, and, earlier, IBM. PC makers also can outsource much of their production and purchase components from a well-established production network of contract manufacturers and components suppliers. This makes it quite easy for PC companies to introduce new PCs with the most advanced technologies. By the 1990s, PC makers could no longer gain much of an edge by virtue of design and manufacturing, as everyone had access to the same technical information and supply base. The difference among PC companies was determined increasingly by the second factorâ₠¬â€the structure of distribution. The traditional distribution system of the PC industry is an indirect model often referred to as â€Å"the channel†. The PC maker sells its products to distributors, who buy products from many manufacturers and then sell them to a variety of retailers, resellers, system integrators, and others, who sell products and services to the final customer. This distribution system was an effective means for distributing high volumes of PCs with a variety of configurations to reach a broad customer base. However, it had inherent weaknesses that left it vulnerable in a time-based competitive environment. First was its reliance on market forecasting to drive production. Even the most successful PC makers, such as IBM, Apple, and Compaq, were chronically bedevilled by their inability to accurately forecast demand in a market driven by ever shorter product cycles. They were either caught with short supplies of hot products, causing them to lose sales to competitors, or stuck with excess inventories of slow sellers, which clogged the distribution channels and often had to be sold at a loss to move them out. Even with the best forecasting, the indirect model was plagued by the need to hold inventory at each step. In the early 1990s, it was common for PC makers to have up to 90 days of inventory on hand and in the channel. The high inventory costs and lack of responsiveness of the indirect channel meant that there was an opportunity for someone who could a way to circumvent the channel. The company that seized this opportunity was Dell, which pioneered a new business model based on selling PCs directly to the final customer, and building the PC only when an order was received Selling directly removes two links in the supply chain where inventory could build up and also enables Dell to know its final customers, provide better service to them, and promote repeat or expanded sales to them. Build-to-order production allows Dell to introduce new technologies as soon as customers want them and makes it possible to adjust production to demand very quickly. It also means that Dell does not purchase components and assemble PCs until it has received payment from the customer, giving the company a negative cash conversion cycle in which it receives payment from customers before it must pay suppliers. The current environment for the computer hardware industry is shaped by several macro forces. Primarily, Dell and its competitors are influenced by economic, demographic, technological and national forces. Government, social, physical and national forces peripherally affect the computer hardware industry to varying degrees. The commoditization of the personal computer—a vital tool for business and consumer. Customers- are a key driver for the economics of this industry. Corporate spending accounts for 80% of all technology spending, and economic conditions decreasing business capital expenditures has a negative and direct impact on the computer hardware industry. While this industry is mature in the U.S., leading to decreased growth expectations, computer spending by other countries around the world will likely fill this void. Pricing in the computer manufacturing industry is extremely competitive. IT reflects the rapid pace of technological change and decreasing PC costs. Since 2000, the prices of chips and disk drives declined and the standardization of primary components of PCs led to a decline in PC prices. Direct sellers, including Dell, have traditionally been able to under-price indirect sellers in the industry including Compaq and HP. However, most PC vendors now offer a desktop model for less than $500 and a laptop for $700. Key success factors for companies in this industry continue to evolve as the industry matures. Specifically, they include: * Competitive prices * Superior relationships with suppliers * Product customization for business and consumer customers * Quality customer service * Excellent cost structure 2.5.1 Channel Issues Some of the channels issues that the companies face are as follows Product related issues Promotions related issue Pricing related issues Target market related issue Product related issues: The nature and type of the product decides the distribution option that should be chosen for the product. A few products require special handling. Ex. Flowers, Fragile goods etc. Promotion related issues: The type of promotions that are required to sell the products to the customers also decides the distribution options; there are products which require an extensive contact of the sales person with the customer like automobiles etc. and there are products which require no sales assistance from the sales person like milk etc. Pricing issues: The price at which the marketer desires to sell their product also decides the distribution option for the channel if a product is prices really less it cannot have many members in the distribution channel as each one of them looks at making their own profit in the channel. Target market issues: The distribution channel is successful only if the product can reach the right customer. Choosing a distribution channel is the path to reach the target customer. A key decision in setting of a channel arrangement is for the marketer to choose the approach to reach his target customer in the best possible manner. 2.6 Dell 2.6.1 Company Background Dell Inc. is a multibillion dollar, multinational technology firm that manufactures, develops, sells and supports personal computing and computer related products. Based out of Texas, it employ

Main Barriers Sustainable Development Developing Countries Initiatives Overcome Economics Essay

Main Barriers Sustainable Development Developing Countries Initiatives Overcome Economics Essay Any country whose standard of living is at a low level is referred to as a developing country. Development level varies from country to country thus cannot be generalized in meaning. Using numerical categorization, Countries with low and middle income have been categorized as developing by the World Bank. Dividing economies with the 2008 Gross National Income per capita (GNI), developing countries were identified by GNI per capital below $11 905. Countries having progressive economies but which have not attained a particular standard to be referred to as developed country are categorized as Newly Industrialized Country (NIC). Such countries are said to have rapid growth in their economy but have still not reached the standard of the First World, these are highly developed countries (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country) Almost all countries of the third world can be categorized as developing, they including all African countries excluding South Africa, all countries in the Middle East excluding Turkey, all Asian countries excluding China, Japan, Singapore, Russia, Taiwan India, Myanmar and South Korea, some countries in Eastern Europe, Southern American countries excluding Brazil and the Caribbean excluding Jamaica and Cuba. File:World Bank income groups.svg Fig1: Countries based on World Bank income groupings for 2006 (calculated by GNI per capita, Atlas method).   Ã‚   High income   Ã‚   Upper-middle income   Ã‚   Lower-middle income   Ã‚   Low income Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country Sustainable Development Sustainable development as defined in 1987 in a report by Brundtland is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. (Hecht, 1999) Sustainable development as an aspiration is global; as an ongoing process, it is local. A growing number of scientists and technologists share in the aspiration and experiment with the local (Mabogunje and Kates, 2004). For sustainable development to be achieved, especially in developing countries, some stages have to be undergone; it is also necessary for essential building blocks to be implemented. The economic, social and environmental factors have to be considered in a transparent and open manner. In many developing countries, the fundamental building blocks, such as a free-market economy, transparency of government operations, public access to information, public involvement in decision making, and enforcement of environmental laws, are weak or absent. Although some developing countries are strengthening domestic policies and regulations and creating economic policy incentives for attracting environmentally sound investment, progress is slow and uneven. (Hecht,1999). Barriers Developing countries have less sustainable livelihoods today than they had 25 years ago. The issue of sustainable development involves making sure that the ongoing development does not affect future generation. Some of the following issues contribute to the low sustainability level in developing countries: Extreme Poverty Poverty is the most prominent barrier to development in developing countries. Almost all population found in these countries live in rural settlements and depend on agriculture as their main source of income. Poverty and the environment have a strong connection especially in countries with economies that depend on natural resources. For people in these countries to meet their needs, they engage in local activities such as tree cutting for fuel wood, wild life hunting (leading to extinction), extensive and excessive farming system and so on. These activities are carried out to meet the needs of today but the repercussions await the future generations. Deforestation Intense farming and deforestation in South America has left some areas with only 5% of natural vegetation. If this trend continues, there might be little or nothing left to pass to the future generations. Africa had about 650 million hectares of woodlands and forests but between 1990 and year 2000, about 53 million hectares of forest was lost (Africare speech, 2008). In respect to the global forest loss, this was about 56% in that period. Deforestation has a resultant effect on protection of soils, the land is more exposed to adverse conditions like erosion and evaporation, also quality of water is affected by deforestation. All these will invariably tell on the production and economy of countries involved. Urban Development Urban areas in developing countries are expected to be more populated majorly because of migration. However this comes with a great environmental challenge. A good number of urban dwellers either inhabit slum areas or carve a slum-niche for themselves simply because they do not have legal rights to own their properties. Slum conditions lack good, portable water, electricity and other basic amenities of life. The issue of waste disposal in slum areas is usually carelessly handled, this poses as a threat to health and safety of slum dwellers. It is not a surprise to use plastic bags as mobile toilets in some large slums like Kibera, Nairobis largest slum. Also, because of the nature of these areas, there is increase in miscreants among juveniles. This has a direct negative effect on young adults who are supposed to be leaders of tomorrow. This is where the effect of the environment on the social life of individuals comes in to play. Some shanty areas in Nigeria have in recent times produced the highest number of notorious young adults. Urbanization in developing countries results in very large population inhabiting very small area, polluted water and air, poor public transport among other things. These environmental conditions lead to low standard of living in these areas. In South America, urban population is found in settlements called squatter, Brazil having favelas while Venezuela has barrios. Caracas is known to have over 50% population living in squatters. These squatters are usually made from scrap and cardboard materials in areas that are prone to flooding or steep areas. After a while, the construction is upgraded with better materials but the settlements remain in an irregular network with small paths and streets, there is usually no plan for waste management, drainage or water supply. The Asian continent among others is not left out in urbanization issues. Bangladesh, a country in Asia has had an increase in urban poverty in recent times. In Dhaka city alone, from 1974 to 2005 slum population has jumped from 250,000 to 2,840,000 during the span of little over 3 decades (Haider, 2008). During these decades, the number of slums also increased from 500 to 4,300. While slum population has increased by more than 11 times the number of slums has increased 8.6 times during this period. The causes for the increase of slum population are certainly complex. However, the major aspect is again related to the lack of well paying jobs in urban areas. There are also cases of downward mobility in urban areas of urban dwellers themselves. Although Bangladesh has been able to reduce urban poverty to some extent, there are pockets of chronic poverty in slums that seem very hard to overcome. (Haider,2008). http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol18no2/2809067_slum.jpg Nairobi, Kenya: Sixty per cent of the citys people live in slum areas. Source: http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol18no2/182environ.htm Impact of Industrial Waste The process of obtaining non-renewable materials from natural resources has an adverse effect on the environment. A good example is Nigeria, a developing country in West Africa. The Niger Delta environment has been polluted by oil spills and flares from gas for over half a century. A target was set forth to put a stop to flaring of gas but this seems to be unachievable with the trend of events. Mine sites which are no longer in use in some parts of Africa contribute to the nuisance that the environment is becoming. In general, mineral and oil exploration contribute to water pollution (which also causes death of organisms in water), contaminated soil, e.tc. Developing countries will continue to have great challenge in attaining sustainable development if the current approach to extraction of resources is not addressed. Effect of Climate Change on Environment Africa as a continent has so many developing countries. Studies from the IPCC (Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change) show that this continent is more prone to the impact of climate change than any other part of the world. Some of the effects of climate change include less rainfall in areas already experiencing dryness like the southern and eastern parts, and increased drought in north central Africa. It is also predicted that by 2025 (Africare speech,2008), western African countries will experience scarcity of water, such countries like Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin Republic, Mauritania, Nigeria e.t.c. While other issues are more pressing and getting better attention from African leaders (such issues as malaria, HIV AIDS, poverty, starvation e.t.c), to sustain the future generation, Africa has to be fully at alert and address the issue of climate change peculiar to its environment. In other areas, climate change may cause flooding in contrast to its effect in these countries. In South America for instance, climate change has an effect on their environment which in essence has a multiplier effect on planning for growth. La Plata River basin which is the fifth largest river in the world generates about 50% of South Americas Gross National Product (GNP) and five countries share boundaries with this river- Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. The effect of climate change in this river basin has affected the economy and as a result its population. Flow in this region has been 30% greater since 1970 than in previous time. This is in contrast to the average rainfall before 1970 and below average rainfall afterwards in sub-Saharan Africa (Africare speech, 2008). Corruption Corruption is a major barrier to sustainable development in every country that it exists. It steals from todays children the resources they will need to survive tomorrow. There is a direct link between underdevelopment and corruption. The former encourages the latter. A good scenario is the public service low income in developing countries, this stimulates trivial corruption. The level of education and enlightenment in these countries also put people in ignorance of their statutory rights, thereby giving room for corrupt individuals. Initiatives to Overcome Barriers The discussion about initiatives to overcome barriers to sustainable development in developing countries will not be justified without mentioning the millennium development goals (MDGs). The MDGs were initiated in September 2000 during the United Nations Summit. These goals are eight in number and they break down into quantifiable targets that are 21 in number, they are also measured by 60 indicators. They include the following: Extreme poverty and hunger eradication Universal primary education for all Encourage women empowerment and gender equality Reduce death rate of children Improve maternal health Fight against diseases especially malaria and HIV/AIDS Implement sustainable development Develop a global partnership for development These goals were created having developing countries in mind as the issues addressed are mostly concerned with them. However, the indicators for these goals show that they have not been effectively implemented locally and globally, they also show that the time frame given to them will not be realistic. Over the years, developing countries have recognized the importance of environmental management and sustainability and there have been initiatives peculiar to each country and situation to enhance this. Some of those initiatives include establishing Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). NGOs have gained reputation especially internationally as they are consulted on matters of planning and implementation of policies made at national and international levels. Examples of such include Global Volunteer Network, Cross-Cultural Solutions, Conserve Africa, Africa Guide, Action for Agricultural Renewal in Maharashtra (AFARM), Conservation Council for South Australia to mention a few. NGOs offer a clearer perspective and a wealth of experience in relevant areas such as human right defense, environmental protection, grassroots development, poverty alleviation, e.t.c. To thrive in their activities, these organizations should work alongside the government by participating in development, planning policies and decision making at the various levels of administration. However, since they are voluntary, availability of funds for NGOs might pose a slight challenge and they sometimes have to depend on funds from large hearted individuals. Other initiatives include creating anticorruption agencies. Since corruption impedes development at all levels of government, countries have created such agencies to check corrupt practices, examples include Office of Anti-Corruption Commission Bhutan (Asia), Independent Authority Against Corruption- Mongolia ( Asia), Anti- Corruption Commission- Bangladesh (Asia), Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission -Kenya (Africa), Independent Corrupt Practices Commission Nigeria (Africa), War Against Indiscipline and Corruption- Nigeria (Africa), Kick Against Indiscipline- Nigeria (Africa), e.t.c These are just a few as there have been numerous organizations at different levels of government that function in this regard. However, as many as these appear to be, the issue of corrupt practices still rear their head. When caught in the act and asked, culprits sometimes blame the economy and government but those are just the ones who are brought to book, top citizens who have connections in high places are usually seen as above the law. This falls back to having good leadership in developing countries as well as citizens having the right attitude, without these, corruption will still find its way in these countries and the efforts of these organizations will not be justified. For every country, the children are the future leaders; good education for them is a very important factor for development. Some efforts have been made by countries and their governments to develop the minds of youngsters educationally, there have been schemes to sponsor students abroad to acquire various skills and knowledge so as to implement and integrate these skills once back home. Recently, the Federal Government of Nigeria awarded 1,087 undergraduate and postgraduate Nigerian students scholarship to study locally. There have also been organizations (PTF-Petroleum Trust Fund) that sponsor student abroad for studies from Nigeria. Other scholarship boards in other countries include Integrated Community Development Fund (ICDF) in Bolivia, Banque Libano Francaise in Lebanon and a host of others in other countries. This initiative has a very slow but steady growth in various developing countries. Other countries simply affiliate themselves with foreign government and bodies to get n ecessary support. Conclusion Since each developing country has its own government and ruling council, initiatives for achieving sustainable development in these countries differ, this is also because apart from the challenges listed above, some countries have challenges that are peculiar in nature to their environment, society and economy. In this regard, these countries tend to lean towards initiatives which particularly address their peculiar problems. Coming up with initiatives is one thing, implementing those initiative is another. In my belief, the latter is more important than the former. To achieve sustainable development, developing countries must make conscious efforts to implement the existing initiatives while looking to create new ones. Lastly, achieving sustainable development in developing countries takes a gradual (not magical) process; levels of achievements can only be measured with indicators periodically. It is up to every individual to contribute in little ways to achieve a nation and global sustainable environment for the future generation.

Societal and Individual Interdependency in Salingers Catcher in the Rye :: essays research papers

In a perfect world, everyone would be happy with the way they are and everyone would accept the differences of others. Unfortunately, the world we live in is not perfect and not everyone accepts who they are . Is there a reason why people cannot be content with their lives or with the differences of other people? The answer is yes, and the reason for the discontent is society. With society telling the masses what is, and is not acceptable, it is no wonder that people seem â€Å"lost†, and are desperately searching out their place in the sun. This search for identity seems to be the case in JD Salinger’s novel, The Catcher in the Rye. Through settings in the novel and symbolism, Salinger illustrates that while the main character, Holden Caulfield, needs the support of the environment around him, the environment also needs Holden as a person. Holden Caulfield is out of place in any environment in which he is placed. At Pencey, his school, Holden gets excluded from the act ivities of his classmates. At the very beginning of the novel, Holden becomes expelled because his grades are not up to Pencey’s standards and also because he does not feel like he belongs there. Holden separates himself from his classmates for the most part by not becoming involved in the school. Although Holden is the equipment manager of the fencing team, he distances himself from his companions by losing the equipment, showing that he does not fit in, and he really does not want to. As he reflects back on his final day at Pencey he says: â€Å" They kicked me out. ...I was flunking four subjects and not applying myself at all. They gave me frequent warnings to start applying myself...but I didn’t do it† (Salinger 4). The school is throwing Holden out because he is not what they want to represent to potential students. They want to show examples of fine, upstanding young men, instead of giving off the image of the failing, confused young man. Salinger uses Pe ncey as a mock society of some sorts. Holden does not fit in at Pencey, and he most definitely does not fit in as seen in the later settings of the novel. A second example of Holden’s isolation from his classmates can also be seen when he stands alone on the top of the hill during the â€Å"big game†.

Shakespeare in Love :: English Literature Essays

Shakespeare in Love How true is my love? William Shakespeare creates the readers world of wonder. His own marriage was a world of wonder. Shakespeare’s wife was young and beautiful. Her name was Anne Hathaway. She was eight years older than Shakespeare. Shakespeare was eighteen when he married Anne. They were joined in a â€Å"hand fast marriage.† This is a contract to marry before witnesses, marked by a kiss and a ring. It is followed by sexual intercourse forming a binding marriage. Romeo and Juliet had a delightful marriage. Shakespeare wrote about happy marriages. Romeo loved Juliet so much that he was willing to die for her. He never did her any wrong and cherished her love. Shakespeare is a woman worshiper. In Elizabeth I, Viola is a young witty girl who dresses as a man to work with Shakespeare. Viola falls in love with him. Viola is portrayed as vibrant and bright. Accusations of Shakespeare’s affairs are published in the novel, No Bed for Bacon. Shakespeare was said to write about love from his own experience. A Midsummer Night’s dream describes love the best. Is love predictable? Hermia and Lysander, in a Midsummer Night’s dream, have an altered love. Hermia’s father chose whom she would love, but Hermia already loves Lysander. She elopes with her love. Then a spell is cast upon her to fall in love with Helena, her fathers best friend. Love is so strong Hermia can’t be forced to love someone besides Lysander, there is a spell. Shakespeare portrays love to be the strongest emotion. It is said that love was the reason he stayed with Anne even though she was so far away. Romeo and Juliet were not supposed to love each other because of family quarrels. They felt so strongly toward each other that they refused to let anything get in the way of their love. Romeo and Juliet are a tragedy. The love they shared brought them to death. Romeo and Juliet tried to be together. They married without telling their family. Juliet’s father had a plan for her to marry someone he favored. Juliet refused, her father insisted, so Juliet faked her death. Romeo was supposed to get a letter telling of the plan. The letter was not received. Romeo found Juliet, supposedly dead, he killed himself at her side. Juliet awakened to her lover dead and committed suicide. Is love this strong?

The Story of Organic Matter Decay in Soils Essay -- Chemistry Chemical

The Story of Organic Matter Decay in Soils To most people, humus is a garlic-y chickpea spread for sandwiches or pita bread. However, to soil scientists, its something entirely different. Soil humus is a mixture of dark, colloidal organic compounds relatively resistant to decomposition. These compounds result from the decay of organic litter and accumulate in the O and A horizons of soils. Soil humus helps glue mineral particals into aggregates, giving structure to the soil and affecting soil stability. There are three main classifications of humus: fulvic acid, humic acid and humin. Humin is insoluble but fulvic and humic acids are soluble in dillute NaOH solution. Humic acids precipitate in acidic solution, but fulvic acids remain soluble. Humic molecules are incredibly varied in composition, but generally are characterized by: 1) many active chemical functional groups exposed to the surrounding solution for reaction with other substances in the solution. 2) a very large cross-linked and "folded" molecule with molecular weights in the hundreds of thousands of grams per molecule" (Miller and Donahue, 1990, p. 185). Humus has a large surface area per unit of mass and is highly charged (similar to clay), and individual humus molecules are dynamic and constantly changing form (but may remain humus for several thousand years). Humus includes sugar amines, nucleic acids, phospholipids, vitamins, sulfolipis, polysaccharides and many other unclassified compounds (Miller and Donahue, 1990). Figure 1 shows a hypothetical structure of a humic acid with many of the characteristic functional groups. Fulvic acid and humin have similar structures. The COOH and phenolic OH groups are weakly acidic, which give humus its pH b... ...II, the environmental conditions alone may determine the rate. (Melillo et al., 1989) Aber et al. supported this conclusion, but measured major differences in the nitrogen content during Phase II, indicating that only the carbon was uniform during this stage (Aber et al, 1990). Other researchers had also separated two stages of decomposition: early decay, when "free" cellulose decomposes quickly, and later decay, when cellulose is shielded by lignin and can be decayed only with the coprocessing of the lignin (Aber et al., 1990). In summary, through a series of complex reactions, microbes mediate the conversion of organic material such as leaves and twigs to the dark humus which colors and glues our soils. Without these processes, the soils would be loose, non-cemented dusts and no life would be able to grow on them, and the world would be a very different place.

Althete Safety

No matter what age. Gender, or ethnicity sports are universal. Whether the sports are American or otherwise, anyone can play/do sports. Thousands of people sign up to play sports in this country every day. In America, sports are one of the top hobbies people do every day. There are so many sports; It is in fact difficult to choose a few among them. However each sport has Its own set of rules. Sports are more popular for teens nowadays but they are the top reason teens are getting injured these days.Rules used to be very minimal when sports were first rated, but as of today each sport has its own specific set of rules to follow by. At every sporting event It Is mandatory to have some type of medical team or medical kit with you at all times. Concussions are the biggest concern when it comes to injuries. Especially playing football, or boxing or other head to head sports. In each sport they make rules to try and prevent the cause of concussions. The rules in each sport nowadays are so advanced that they try so hard to push the Importance of how bad a concussion can be toward an athlete.A concussion could ruin a player's season, or even career. This doesn't happen to teen athletes. This could occur to those playing in the NIL (National Hockey League), the NFG (National Football League) and even boxing along with many other sports. Many people believe that the new set of rules and regulations set for each sport to try to protect athletes from being injured is unnecessary; while others believe that they're great and can definitely save people. Many people are all for the rules and regulations to protect the athletes.Most of the reason they have these rules and isolations Is to prevent lawsuits and of course concussions According to past experiences with teammates it should be a requirement for student athletes or any athlete for this matter to be provided with training in recognizing symptoms of certain medical issues such as; concussions, asthma, or other head and neck injuries. Being both healthy and safe will help you become a better athlete and obviously will help you stay safe of other injuries.Injuries at teenage levels can be taken very serious, even if it's Just a sprain or a pulled muscle. Stretching out each day when you aka up, before and after you work out will not only loosen up your muscles but it'll reduce the percentage of injuries. According to â€Å"USA Today† 1. 35 million youth athletes have a serious injury each year due to sports and not being healthy with your body. The top youth sports injuries occur with contact of the head or your ankles.The highest percentage rate of injuries Is your ankles at 15%. The second highest Is your head with 14%. Surprisingly enough the lowest percentage injury Is your knees at 9%. The most common sports for these types of Injuries to happen are in football and basketball. According to â€Å"USA Today' the number of people with concussions this past year at ages 19 and under is at 3 94,350 playing football. The number of concussions due to playing basketball is at 389,610 this past year.These Injuries are due to no safety training to these student athletes. By age the highest percentage rate for concussions is 47% at ages 12-15. The lowest percentage rate for concussions is at 5% for athletes 7 and under. Increasing. Athletes would rather focus on playing the game and getting ready to compete then focusing on their warm up and being provided with training. However, any Americans frequently utilize the healthcare system for treatment of injuries resulting from everyday activities such as sports.Whether the sports are for the school or an intramural the number of injuries is still pretty high due to the fact of not training the symptoms of injuries. Every year the percentage rate goes up because of the different rule changes. Many suffer from minor or even serious sports-related injuries. Throughout the years of sports so many rules have changed that the injury l evel on student athletes keeps changing. However, the number of injuries occurs a lot wrought bigger level sports, such as; the NFG, NIL and boxing or other head on sports.The sports don't have to be head on Just to injure yourself. You can play any sport and injure anything in your body if you use it the wrong way. The more you don't focus on training for the symptoms the easier it is to injure yourself. It could change your life in a negative way. Whether you train yourself or not for the symptoms of injuries there's still a possibility you can get injured. You can't prevent getting injured 100%, but if you trained yourself for the symptoms then you have a better chance to prevent injury.

American criminal procedures Essay

The American Bill of Rights guarantees freedom of speech, religion, and assembly in addition to other significant protections against the suppression of government and official agencies, â€Å"provides a noble action and shield of human dignity. †(Brennan Jr. 1989. p 425) The Bill of rights epitomizes the constant will of humanity for individual rights and protections. Essentially, Bill of Rights as incarnated in the first ten Amendments of American constitution is an acknowledgment of the individual dignity and rights and it also manifest an embargo on the government itself to exploit and manipulate these rights. â€Å"The Bill of Rights, in other words, deals with the protection of the individual against his Government. The protection of an individual against another individual or group of individuals is not implicit in the Bill of Rights, but falls more into the realm of police powers of the Government. † (Wise, James Waterman, 1941. p. 35) The philosophy and ideas of English Philosopher John Locke has been inducted in the Bill of Rights. Locke presented the philosophy of natural rights i. e. that all the individuals are endowed with inherent rights. Locke was of the view that civil society of which the government is an organ, is established to safeguard the individual rights. This idea of natural right greatly influenced the concepts Madison who is considered the creator of American Bill of Rights. The guarantees of fundamental individual rights, provided by the bill of rights are general in its definition and application and applicability rests in the discretion of the â€Å"adjudicative bodies. † This quality of the Bill of Rights capacitate it with the ability to be applicable at the broader level because it â€Å"permit judges to adapt canons of right to situation not envisaged by those who framed (it) there by facilitating (its) evolution and preserving (its) vitality†(Brennan Jr. 1989). Another distinction of the Bill of rights is that it enables the Supreme Court to reform American criminal procedures and align it with the provision and protections in the Bill of Rights. For example in Miranda vs. Arizona case, the Court made it clear that police must inform the person under interrogation his rights. Its ruling included that police must inform the detainee his right to silence and his right to a lawyer. But the attitude of Supreme Court is ambivalent in the above mentioned case and is encircled with controversies. Sixth Amendments provides the right of counsel to the detainees or individual under interrogation or under prosecution in a federal court. The denial of such counseling negates the provision of Bill of rights. Certain ruling by the federal courts exemplify that courts are still in a state of confusion over this issue. â€Å"In dealing with state cases the Supreme Court has distinguished between the situation where an accused is denied the right to consult a lawyer whom he had selected, and that where, being unable to procure any lawyer, the court refused to appoint one. In the former case a conviction cannot standing the latter it depends on the circumstances†. (Fraenkel, O. K. 1963, p. 117). The House vs. Mayo and Betts vs. Bardy cases are clear manifestation of this duality on the part of judiciary. ( House v. Mayo, 324 U. S. 786 (1945) 117, 118 & Betts v. Brady, 316 U. S. 455 (1942) 118) In the absence of an enforcement mechanism or power of vindication, the bill of rights becomes mere moral ideals. These moral ideals are better appreciated rather than practiced. Same is the case with the American Bill of Rights. The courts can take action unless a plea is made to it. But a written charter is also essential to empower the judiciary protect the citizen from the clutches of official hostility. This empowerment through bill of Rights manifested itself in the case of NSA surveillance controversy. U. S. President George W. Bush promulgated a secret executive order soon after 9/11 that capacitated the National Security Agency (NSA) with an authority to carry out wiretapping of suspected persons in America. The hallmark of this executive order was to conduct surveillance without acquiring approval or warrants from a FISA court (Risen. J & Lichtblau Eric. 2005). These order and activity were unlawful and unconstitutional as it violated the legal and constitutional privacy rights of the people provided under Fourth Amendment. Fourth Amendments states that â€Å"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. †(Hand, L. 1986) The executive order issued by the President Bush for warrantless surveillance is an explicit violation of the fourth amendment as it enables the security agencies to intrude the private lives of American people without providing any â€Å"probable cause† for this act. The illegality of the executive order was further reinforced by the court decision in ACLU vs. NSA case. The U. S. District Court Judge OF Eastern District of Michigen ruled that wiretapping without warrant from FISA is an unlawful and unconstitutional activity as it is the violation of individual privacy rights and freedom. The judge further ordered to eavesdrop on phone calls with immediate effect. In her ruling she wrote: â€Å"The President of the United States, a creature of the same Constitution which gave us these Amendments, has undisputedly violated the Fourth in failing to procure judicial orders as required by FISA, and accordingly has violated the First Amendment Rights of these Plaintiffs as well. † (ACLU v. NSA. 2006 p. 33) The duality of the adjudicative powers is clear from a previous ruling where in Draper case (Draper v. United States, 358 U. S. 307 (1959) 100) the Court advocate in favour of a warrantless search made to an arrest in a public place. The court ruling was based on the ground that law enforcement agency had â€Å"probable cause† to believe that a criminal activity has occurred although they worked on information from an informant formerly found reliable. This was obvious mockery of the civil rights of the individuals. Above mentioned examples illustrates that Bill of Rights is a proper and valid guarantee for the individual rights of American citizens. But lack of a proper reinforcement mechanism makes it dependent. The generality of the provisions of Bill of Rights is an important characteristic that enables the adjudicative agencies to interpret it according to situational context of a particular case. Although certain rulings by the Courts has harmed the true nature and objective of the Bills of Rights and had reduced it to mere cherished ideals but still it is an important tool to protects the rights of American people References ACLU vs. NSA. (2006) http://fl1. findlaw. com/news. findlaw. com/nytimes/docs/nsa/aclunsa81706opn. pdf Brant, I. 1965, The Bill of rights: its origin and meaning. A Mentor book, New American Library, New York. Brennan, William J. Jr. 1989, Why Have a Bill of Rights? Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 425-440 Draper v. United States, 358 U. S. 307 (1959) 100 http://caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/cgibin/getcase. pl? friend=nytimes&navby=case&court=us&vol=358&invol=307 Dumbauld, E. 1979, The Bill of rights and what it means today. Greenwood Press, Westport. Fraenkel, O. K. 1963, The Supreme Court and civil liberties: how the Court has protected the Bill of rights. 2d ed. Published for the American Civil Liberties Union, Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.. Hand, L. 1986, The Bill of rights. College ed. The Oliver Wendell Holmes lectures 1958. Atheneum, New York, N. Y.. Strauss, David A. 1992, Afterword: The Role of a Bill of Rights The University of Chicago Law Review, vol. 59, no. 1, The Bill of Rights in the Welfare State: A Bicentennial Symposium, pp. 539-565. Risen. J & Lichtblau Eric. 2005, Bush Lets U. S. Spy on Callers without Courts, NewYork Time, December 16. http://www. nytimes. com/2005/12/16/politics/16program. html? ei=5090&en=e32072d786623ac1&ex=1292389200